airpig的部落格

According to the calm waters scenario, an occasional disruption (a “storm”) means changing to deal with the disruption. On the other hand, the white-water rapids metaphor implies a dynamic environment with constantly changing paradigms and high levels of competition.

In Lewin’s model, successful change usually occurs in three steps: unfreezing, change and refreezing. For unfreezing to occur, the organization must plan a move away from the status quo. To move away from this equilibrium, the organization undergoes an increase of the driving forces, which are forces pushing for change and/or a decrease in the restraining forces, which are forces that resist change. After unfreezing, the change

itself can be implemented. To make the change permanent, the new situation needs to be refrozen.

To change structure, management can change structural components (i.e. jobs could be combined or levels eliminated). More rules and procedures could be implemented to increase standardization or employees could be empowered to make decisions so decision making could be faster.

Technology can be changed by changing the processes by which employees work to make them more efficient (i.e. the introduction of scientific management techniques).

Technology can be changed by introducing of new equipment, tools, or methods. Also, companies are becoming more technologically advanced by incorporation automation and/or computerization into their production lines.

Changing people involves changing attitudes, expectations, perceptions, and behaviors.

This can be done through organizational development initiatives that focus on people and the nature and quality of interpersonal work relationships.

If the low-level employee is a low-level manager, it is possible that he or she could act as a change analyst, just as any manager can be a change agent. However, it is important to note that change should begin at the top and work its way done. Change is most successful when it is supported by top management. Also, it is important to remember that as organizations empower employees, they may empower them as change agents,also.

The main reasons people resist change are: uncertainty, habit, concern over personal loss, and the belief that the change is not in the organization’s best interest. The techniques for reducing stress include: education and communication, participation, facilitation and support, negotiation, manipulation and co-optation, and coercion. These tactics are summarized in Exhibit 6-5.

Student answers will likely vary. To generate discussion, you might ask students to think about the plans they have for this evening, or this weekend. Then ask what would happen if a friend called and suddenly offered them an opportunity to attend an event or to go visit another location. Would they do it? How could this situation be compared with unplanned organizational change?

Signs that an organization may have exceeded its capacity to change include an increasing level of resistance to change. If changes are negatively impacting employee work performance and behavior, the manager may discern that the organization has exceeded its capacity to change.

The structural variables necessary for innovation include: organic structures, abundant resources, high interunit communication, minimal time pressure, and work and nonwork support. Cultural variables include: acceptance of ambiguity, tolerance of the impractical, low external controls, tolerance of risks, tolerance of conflict, focus on ends, open-system focus, and positive feedback. Finally, the human resource variables are:

high commitment to training and development, high job security, and creative people.

This question offers an opportunity to set up a debate in class. Ask half of the students in the class to argue that being wrong can be fatal, and have the remaining half of the class argue that being wrong does not have to be fatal.

Students must, however, understand and be able to incorporate the relationship between nurturing innovation and “punishing” failure.