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10.1設計組織架構
●組織：建立組織結構的程序。
●組織結構：關於工作任務分派、編組、協調等的正式架構。
●組織設計：發展或改變組織的結構。
表：組織的目的
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組織設計6個關鍵因素：專業分工、部門劃分、指揮鏈、控制幅度、集權與分權以及正式化。
(1).專業分工：組織任務分工的程度。
●專業分工的精髓：
-將工作拆解成幾個步驟，再由不同的人分段完成，
-每個員工只需專精於生產中的某項工作。
●20世紀前半葉：
-管理者認為專業分工可以無限制地提高生產力。
-1960年代，專業分工出現不經濟性─無聊、疲勞、壓力、不良品質、曠職率與流動率上件。
圖：專業分工的經濟與不不經濟性
●當代趨勢：
-現今管理者將專業分工視為一個重要的組織機制，而不是一個無限制提高生產力的泉源。
-如果能使工作變化性增加，讓員工參與整個工作的完成，或讓他們加入不同的工作團隊等，可提高他們的工作滿意度。
-豐田汽車的組裝廠中，工作小組的成員每兩個小時就會輪換工作，這樣他們的工作就會用到不同部份的肌肉，降低單調性。(豐田供應鏈管理/第5章 P.99)
(2).部門劃分：將工作再重新組合。
●當代趨勢：主要有兩大類。
-依客戶別劃分部門，以更有效掌控顧客的需求。
-跨功能團隊：讓不同領域的專家共同工作。
圖：五種常見的部門劃分形式
(3).指揮鏈：組織高層到基層的一條連續性職權關係。
●職權：職位所賦予的權力，可指示屬下該做的事，與期望屬下須達成的工作。
●職權接受論(acceptance theory of authority)：職權不在發令者而在受命者的理論。
接收命令必須：
1.受命者確實已瞭解。
2.合於組織目標。
3.不違背受命者權益。
4.受命者有能力加以執行。
●直線職權：直線人員所擁有，包括發布命令及執行決策等的權力(指揮權)。
圖：直線職權的指揮鏈
●幕僚職權：某項職位或某部門(幕僚)所擁有的輔助性職權，包括提供諮詢、建議等。
●職責：員工接受指派工作的義務。
●指揮權統一：協助維持由上而下權威的連續性，員工只應對一位管理者負責。
●當代趨勢：
-早期的管理學家非常執著於：指揮鏈、職權、職責和指揮權統一的觀念。
-隨時間的改變，資訊科技的進步與員工授權的需要，讓這些觀念變得較不重要。
(4).控制幅度：管理者可以有效率與有效能地指揮員工。
-組織的控制幅度較廣，可以減少組織層級並節省管理者人數。(節省成本)
圖：控制幅度的對照
●當代趨勢：
-決定幅度的因素：員工工作的相似性、工作的複雜性、部屬本質的相近性、生產程序的標準化程度、組織資訊系統的精密度、企業文化的強度，以及領導風格等。
-近年趨勢傾向於較廣的控制幅度。組織必需安排教育訓練以確保績效的維持。
(5).集權與分權：此觀念是相對，不是絶對的，組織不會百分之百集權或分權。
●集權：組織的決策權掌握在單一管理者的集中程度。(由上而下，很少有低階管理者參與其中)
●分權：基層管理者或員工提供相關訊息或參與較多的決策。
表：集權與分權傾向的影響因素
| 偏向集權 | 偏向分權 |
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●員工賦權：讓員工有更多的權力自行做決策。(第15章有詳細的說明)
●當代趨勢：
-為了使組織更有彈性、對外界的變化能即時反應，業界趨勢朝向分權決策來發展。
-基層管理者最接近執行面，通常比高階管理者更瞭解問題所在。
(6).正式化(formalization)：指工作標準化，以及員工遵循公司條例與標準程序而行事的程度。
●當代趨勢：
-現今的管理者愈來愈少倚賴正式化來限制員工的行為。
10.2機械式和有機式組織
●機械式組織：組織擁有固定而嚴謹的結構。(大型企業和政府單位較常見到此特徵)
●有機式組織：組織具有高度的適應力與彈性。
圖：機械式與有機式組織的比較
10.3影響選擇組織架構的權變因素
策略與結構
●組織結構應根據策略來設計，以助於組織達到織織目標。
●不同組織目標不同的組織架構。
-追求創新公司：有機式組織中的彈性與資訊的自由流通。
-成本最小化公司：機械式組織中的高效率、穩定而嚴格的控制。
規模大小與結構：組織的大小會深深影響組織的結構。
●大型組織會比小型組織更多的專業分工、部門劃分、中央集權、組織章程與規範等。
●組織結構的變化並非線性的。隨組織成長，規模大小對結構的衝擊變小。
技術與結構：由Joan Woodward學者研究技術與結構的關係。
表：Woodward在技術、結構與效能上的發現
| 單位生產 | 大量生產 | 流程生產 | |
| 結構特徵 最有效的結構 |
低度垂直差異化 低度水平差異化 低度正式化 有機式 |
中度垂直差異化 高度水平差異化 高度正式化 機械式 |
高度垂直差異化 低度水平差異化 低度正式化 有機式 |
環境不確定性與結構：組織結構之所以受環境的影響，原因在於環境的不確定性。
●環境不確定性愈高，需要有機式結構的彈性。
●穩定而單純的環境中，機械式的結構會比較有效。
●當代趨勢：面對全球化的競爭，機械式組織並不足以應付快速的環境變化，而有機式組織將是組織設計的未來趨勢。
10.4傳統的組織設計
表：傳統組織設計的優點與缺點
| 簡單式結構 |
| 優點：迅速、彈性、維護成本低、責任歸屬明確。 缺點：不適於組織成長期；完全依賴一個人會有風險。 |
| 功能式結構 |
| 優點：專業分工所造成的成本節省優勢(規模經濟、人員與設備的最少重複)；依工作的相似性，將員工分組。 缺點：對功能別目標的追求，可能使管理者迷失了整體的最佳目標；各功能部門的員工可能會對其化的運作無所知悉。 |
| 部門式結構 |
| 優點：注重結果，部門管理者對其產品與服務負責。 |
簡單式結構
●簡單式結構：簡略的部門、較廣的控制幅度、集中於一人的權力與較少正式化的組織設計。
功能式結構
●功能式結構：將相似或相關工作專長的員工歸在一起的組織設計。
部門式結構
●部門式結構：由不同的單位或事業部所組成的組織結構。
10.5現今的組織設計
表：現代組織設計
| (1).團隊結構 |
| 內容：整個組織都是由工作小組或工作團隊組成。 優點：員工參與度高，擁有更高的權力。 缺點：指揮系統不夠清楚；團隊績效壓力大。 |
| (2.)矩陣式專案結構 |
| 內容：矩陣結構就是從各部門指派專職的員工成立專案小組負責執行專案，當專案結束後，各自回到原來的工作崗位。專案結構則是由專職的員工負責執行專案，一個專案結束後繼續執行下一個專案。 優點：快速而彈性，能隨時回應外界的變化，決策速度快。 缺點：分派專案時容易產生工作分配上的問題和人際衝突。 |
| (3.)無疆界結構 |
| 內容：不受各種人為疆界的限制，有虛擬、網路和模型結構。 優點：非常有彈性、回應速度快。 缺點：不易控制，容易產生溝通上的障礙。 |
| (4.)學習型組織結構 |
| 內容：支持組織持續調整與改變。 優點：員工隨時都在分享與運用知識，學習能力有助於維持競爭優勢。 缺點：要求員工分享所學可能會有困難，員工之間合作不易。 |
(1.)團隊結構：整個組織都是由工作小組或工作團隊組成。(沒有上下的階層式管理，因此充分授權對此結構是很重要的。)
(2.)矩陣式專案結構：
●矩陣式結構(matrix structure)：針對專案的需求，從不同專業功能門中調集人手組成團隊，並由一位專案經理來領導。
●專案式結構(projcet structure)：員工不斷在專案中工作的組織結構。(專案組織的員工並沒有歸屬的部門)
(3.)無疆界組織：
●無疆界組織：組織的設計不受限於水平式、垂直式或外部邊界等原先的組織結構。(Jack Welch提出，維持彈性與非結構化。)
●虛擬組織：由小部分核心全職員工及臨時聘僱的外部專家所組成的組織。(例：電影業)
●網路組織：將主要的業務功能外包出去，使組織專注在自己擅長的活動，並將其他活動外包給做得更好的公司。
(4.)學習型組織：組織繼續學習、改造及改變的能力。(為一種組織設計的思維或哲學觀念)
●跨部門、跨層級的分享資訊並協調彼此的工作。(無疆界組織較有利於此組織)
●管理者扮演的是協助、支持與維護者的角色。
●領導者最重要的功能為創造組織所共享的未來願景，並讓成員不斷的朝那個方向努力。
●組織文化在學習組織中扮演重要的角色。
10.6彈性工作安排
遠距離辦公
●在家工作，並用電腦與工作場所連結。
壓縮工作週、彈性工時、工作分享
●壓縮工作週：每天工時延長，但每週上班天數減少。
●彈性工時：一種工作設計的方案，透過給予員工對工作時間的自由裁量權，來提升員工的工作滿意度。
●工作分享：兩個或兩個以上之員工從事同一份工作。
10.7今日組織設計的挑戰
維持員工間的互動
●利用網路有效的連結散佈世界各地的員工。
全球性的架構議題
●文化因子是一個很重要的考量因素。例：開發中國家，正式化的規章和制度所占的權重就會比較高。
是非題
Traditionally, work specialization was viewed as a way to divide work activities into separate job tasks. Today’s view is that it is an important organizing mechanism but it can lead to problems. The chain of command and its companion concepts—authority, responsibility, and unity of command—were viewed as important ways of maintaining control in organizations. The contemporary view is that they are less relevant in today’s organizations. The traditional view of span of control was that managers should directly supervise no more than five to six individuals. The contemporary view is that the span of control depends on the skills and abilities of the manager and the employees and on the characteristics of the situation.
2.組織架構會改變很快嗎？
The speed with which structural changes can be implemented depends partly upon an organization’s size. A small organization is usually able to change its structure more rapidly than a larger one because a smaller company has fewer employees who are involved in the restructuring process. However, a large organization can change its structure and often does in response to changing environmental conditions and changing strategies.
3.比較機械式和有機式組織的不同。
A mechanistic organization is a rigid and tightly controlled structure. An organic organization is highly adaptive and flexible.
4.你比較喜歡在機械式還是有機式組織內工作？為什麼？
Students’ answers to this question will vary. Many students prefer the structure provided by a mechanistic organization, whereas others would be less productive in an organization with structural rigidity. Note that SAL #III.A.1 “What Type of Organization Structure Do I Prefer?” addresses whether each of your students would like to work in a
bureaucracy (a mechanistic organization). Students might want to revisit this assessment in answering this question.
5.解釋影響組織設計的權變因子。
An organization’s structure should support the strategy. If the strategy changes, the structure also should change. An organization’s size can affect its structure up to a certain point. Once an organization reaches a certain size (usually around 2,000 employees), it’s fairly mechanistic. An organization’s technology can affect its structure.
An organic structure is most effective with unit production and process production technology. A mechanistic structure is most effective with mass production technology.
The more uncertain an organization’s environment, the more it needs the flexibility of an organic design.
6.傳統組織設計有哪三種類型？
A simple structure is one with low departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization. A functional structure groups similar or related occupational specialties together. A divisional structure is made up of separate business units or divisions.
7.隨著類似在家工作的資訊科技，「組織」仍是管理功能的重要項目嗎？為什麼？
Although an organization’s work may be done anywhere at any time, organizing remains a vital managerial function because the work that must be accomplished still must be divided, grouped, and coordinated.
8.有研究者指出，簡化工作內容對組織和個人都有負面的影響，你同意嗎？為什麼？
Studies as far back as 1924 show that simplified jobs lead to boredom. In 1950 other researchers found that highly segmented and simplified jobs resulted in lower employee
morale and output. Other consequences of low employee motivation include absenteeism and high employee turnover, both very costly for businesses.
9.描述現今的四種組織設計方式，各有何異同。
In a team structure, the entire organization is made up of work teams. The matrix structure assigns specialists from different functional departments to work on one or more projects being led by project managers. A project structure is one in which employees continuously work on projects. A virtual organization consists of a small core of fulltime employees and outside specialists temporarily hired as needed to work on projects. A network organization is an organization that uses its own employees to do some work activities and networks of outside suppliers to provide other needed product components or work processes. A learning organization is one that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and change. It has certain structural characteristics including an emphasis on sharing information and collaborating on work activities, minimal structural and physical barriers, and empowered work team.
10.矩陣式與專案式組織有何差異？
A project structure, unlike the matrix structure, has no formal departments where employees return at the completion of a project. Instead, employees take their specific skills, abilities, and experiences to other projects. Also, all work in project structures is performed by teams of employees.
11.組織若沒有疆界，要如何運作？
While the term ‘boundaryless’ may imply something akin to chaos, it refers to the idea that organizations can operate effectively by remaining flexible and unstructured. There are two types: (1) internal—the horizontal ones imposed by work specialization and departmentalization and the vertical ones that separate employees into organizational levels and hierarchies; and (2) external—the boundaries that separate the organization from its customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders. To minimize or eliminate these boundaries, managers might use virtual or network structural designs.
12.無疆界組織會改變我們的工作型態，你同意嗎？為什麼？
Students’ responses to this will vary. This question could serve as an interesting springboard for a class debate. Students could break into teams, with each team taking the opposite position in the debate. Give students an opportunity to discuss their strategy as a team before presenting their viewpoints to the class.
13.管理者在專案式結構中，需要有哪些工作技能？在無疆界組織中呢？在學習型組織中呢？
In all of these types of organizations, flexibility and adaptability are critical. In the project structure, conflict anagement skills are particularly useful. In a boundaryless organization, the ability to interact effectively with people at all levels and in all areas of the organization is crucial to success. In a learning organization, a manager needs the ability to communicate both by listening and by speaking because of the frequency and importance of sharing information in this type of organization.
14.彈性工作安排會對組織結構產生什麼影響？
Although an organization’s work may be done anywhere at any time, organizing remains a vital managerial function because the work that must be accomplished still must be divided, grouped, and coordinated. When organizations become more flexible, control and authority become important issues. Without direct supervision (in the case of
telecommuting), lines of authority are weak and managers may feel that a loss of control.
On the other hand, in the case of telecommuting, employees may feel left out of important organizational decisions or like they are not considered for important assignments.
15.彈性工作安排對你有吸引力嗎？為什麼？
Students may respond several ways to this question. Flexible work arrangements are not for everyone. An analogy is internet classes. While these classes offer the student greater flexibility and help with scheduling issues, some students find that they do not get as much from the class or that they lose focus and let the class assignments build up.
16.維持員工間的互動為什麼是現今組織設計的挑戰？
This question seems strange with all of the communication technology available today (i.e. cell-phones, e-mail, lectronic meeting software, etc…). However, with organizations adopting more flexible structures and flexible work arrangements, employees are dispersed throughout the organization and the world. In addition, with the introduction of team and project environments, it is possible that employees will be working on so multiple projects at once. Considering these factors, it is difficult to make sure everyone has the necessary information when and where they need it.
(O)1.工作專精化(專業分工)的概念可追溯到數世紀前Adam Smith所討論的分工。
(O)2.分工係依組織中的任務被拆解成數個工作。P.207
(X)3.依產品或顧客流為基礎的工作編組稱為顧客(客戶)別部門化分。P.209(圖)
(O)4.群體中讓不同領域的專家共同工作稱為跨功能團隊。P.210
(O)5.當決策傾向由組織中較低層級者決定，這種組織稱為分權制。P.214
(X)6.創新者需要效率、穩定及嚴格控制機械式組織。P.217
(X)7.功能式結構的優勢是專注於結果。P.219圖
(O)8.傳統的組織設計包含簡單式結構、功能式結構及事業部結構。P.219
(O)9.員工賦能是團隊結構重要的面向，因為沒有從上到下的直線管理當局。
(X)10.簡單式結構有簡略的部門、較窄的控制幅度及很少正式化的組織設計。P.220
選擇題：
(d)1.組織設計是由下列何者來做決策基準？a.專業分工與及部門化b.指揮鏈與控制幅度c.集權與分權d.以上皆是。P.207
(d)2.下列哪一陳述正確定義專業分工？a.任務拆解成不同的工作b.個人受僱者專精部分的活動而非整個作業活動c.工作依對企業的價值或貢獻來排序d.只有a和b是對的。P.207
(a)3.將工作重新組合以達到組織目標的動作是指：a.部門化b.集權c.正式化d.協調。P.208
(b)4.銷售責任區分為西南、中西、南方、北方及西部區域，此可能是何種類型的部門化？a.產品b.地理c.流程d.結果。P.209
(a)5.功能別部門化組織工作係以何種方式分類？a.工作執行b.服務範疇c.生產的產品或服務d.服務的顧客別。P.209
(c)6.部門化是依照下列哪一項基準來分工作小組的區域或實際工作位置？a.功能別b.產品別c.地理區域別d.矩陣。P.209
(d)7.一種被嚴格控管有效率的組織稱為：a.有機式b.水平式c.學習式d.機械式。P.216
(a)8.有關組織結構和組織策略的關係，下列何者正確？a.結構追隨策略b.策略追隨結構c.策略、結構總同時進行d.規模較小的組織中策略追隨結構。P.217
(d)9.哪一種環境最適合機械式組織？a.動態式b.製造式c.服務d.穩定的。P.216
(d)10.哪一種組織結構最強調授權？a.官僚式b.簡單式c.功能式d.團隊基礎。P.221
問答題：
1.討論傳統和今日對於組織設計六個要素的看法。
(X)3.依產品或顧客流為基礎的工作編組稱為顧客(客戶)別部門化分。P.209(圖)
(O)4.群體中讓不同領域的專家共同工作稱為跨功能團隊。P.210
(O)5.當決策傾向由組織中較低層級者決定，這種組織稱為分權制。P.214
(X)6.創新者需要效率、穩定及嚴格控制機械式組織。P.217
(X)7.功能式結構的優勢是專注於結果。P.219圖
(O)8.傳統的組織設計包含簡單式結構、功能式結構及事業部結構。P.219
(O)9.員工賦能是團隊結構重要的面向，因為沒有從上到下的直線管理當局。
(X)10.簡單式結構有簡略的部門、較窄的控制幅度及很少正式化的組織設計。P.220
選擇題：
(d)1.組織設計是由下列何者來做決策基準？a.專業分工與及部門化b.指揮鏈與控制幅度c.集權與分權d.以上皆是。P.207
(d)2.下列哪一陳述正確定義專業分工？a.任務拆解成不同的工作b.個人受僱者專精部分的活動而非整個作業活動c.工作依對企業的價值或貢獻來排序d.只有a和b是對的。P.207
(a)3.將工作重新組合以達到組織目標的動作是指：a.部門化b.集權c.正式化d.協調。P.208
(b)4.銷售責任區分為西南、中西、南方、北方及西部區域，此可能是何種類型的部門化？a.產品b.地理c.流程d.結果。P.209
(a)5.功能別部門化組織工作係以何種方式分類？a.工作執行b.服務範疇c.生產的產品或服務d.服務的顧客別。P.209
(c)6.部門化是依照下列哪一項基準來分工作小組的區域或實際工作位置？a.功能別b.產品別c.地理區域別d.矩陣。P.209
(d)7.一種被嚴格控管有效率的組織稱為：a.有機式b.水平式c.學習式d.機械式。P.216
(a)8.有關組織結構和組織策略的關係，下列何者正確？a.結構追隨策略b.策略追隨結構c.策略、結構總同時進行d.規模較小的組織中策略追隨結構。P.217
(d)9.哪一種環境最適合機械式組織？a.動態式b.製造式c.服務d.穩定的。P.216
(d)10.哪一種組織結構最強調授權？a.官僚式b.簡單式c.功能式d.團隊基礎。P.221
問答題：
1.討論傳統和今日對於組織設計六個要素的看法。
Discuss the traditional and contemporary views of each of the six key elements of organizational design.
2.組織架構會改變很快嗎？
Can an organization’s structure be changed quickly?Why or why not? Should it be changed quickly?Explain.
3.比較機械式和有機式組織的不同。
Contrast mechanistic and organic organizations.
4.你比較喜歡在機械式還是有機式組織內工作？為什麼？
Would you rather work in a mechanistic or an organic organization? Why?
bureaucracy (a mechanistic organization). Students might want to revisit this assessment in answering this question.
5.解釋影響組織設計的權變因子。
Explain the contingency factors that affect organizational design.
An organization’s structure should support the strategy. If the strategy changes, the structure also should change. An organization’s size can affect its structure up to a certain point. Once an organization reaches a certain size (usually around 2,000 employees), it’s fairly mechanistic. An organization’s technology can affect its structure.
An organic structure is most effective with unit production and process production technology. A mechanistic structure is most effective with mass production technology.
The more uncertain an organization’s environment, the more it needs the flexibility of an organic design.
6.傳統組織設計有哪三種類型？
Contrast the three traditional organizational designs.
7.隨著類似在家工作的資訊科技，「組織」仍是管理功能的重要項目嗎？為什麼？
With the availability of advanced information technology that allows an organization’s work to be done anywhere at any time, is organizing still an important managerial function?
Why or why not?
8.有研究者指出，簡化工作內容對組織和個人都有負面的影響，你同意嗎？為什麼？
Researchers are now saying that efforts to simplify work tasks actually have negative results for both companies and their employees. Do you agree?
Why or why not?
Studies as far back as 1924 show that simplified jobs lead to boredom. In 1950 other researchers found that highly segmented and simplified jobs resulted in lower employee
morale and output. Other consequences of low employee motivation include absenteeism and high employee turnover, both very costly for businesses.
9.描述現今的四種組織設計方式，各有何異同。
In a team structure, the entire organization is made up of work teams. The matrix structure assigns specialists from different functional departments to work on one or more projects being led by project managers. A project structure is one in which employees continuously work on projects. A virtual organization consists of a small core of fulltime employees and outside specialists temporarily hired as needed to work on projects. A network organization is an organization that uses its own employees to do some work activities and networks of outside suppliers to provide other needed product components or work processes. A learning organization is one that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and change. It has certain structural characteristics including an emphasis on sharing information and collaborating on work activities, minimal structural and physical barriers, and empowered work team.
10.矩陣式與專案式組織有何差異？
A project structure, unlike the matrix structure, has no formal departments where employees return at the completion of a project. Instead, employees take their specific skills, abilities, and experiences to other projects. Also, all work in project structures is performed by teams of employees.
11.組織若沒有疆界，要如何運作？
While the term ‘boundaryless’ may imply something akin to chaos, it refers to the idea that organizations can operate effectively by remaining flexible and unstructured. There are two types: (1) internal—the horizontal ones imposed by work specialization and departmentalization and the vertical ones that separate employees into organizational levels and hierarchies; and (2) external—the boundaries that separate the organization from its customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders. To minimize or eliminate these boundaries, managers might use virtual or network structural designs.
12.無疆界組織會改變我們的工作型態，你同意嗎？為什麼？
Students’ responses to this will vary. This question could serve as an interesting springboard for a class debate. Students could break into teams, with each team taking the opposite position in the debate. Give students an opportunity to discuss their strategy as a team before presenting their viewpoints to the class.
13.管理者在專案式結構中，需要有哪些工作技能？在無疆界組織中呢？在學習型組織中呢？
In all of these types of organizations, flexibility and adaptability are critical. In the project structure, conflict anagement skills are particularly useful. In a boundaryless organization, the ability to interact effectively with people at all levels and in all areas of the organization is crucial to success. In a learning organization, a manager needs the ability to communicate both by listening and by speaking because of the frequency and importance of sharing information in this type of organization.
14.彈性工作安排會對組織結構產生什麼影響？
Although an organization’s work may be done anywhere at any time, organizing remains a vital managerial function because the work that must be accomplished still must be divided, grouped, and coordinated. When organizations become more flexible, control and authority become important issues. Without direct supervision (in the case of
telecommuting), lines of authority are weak and managers may feel that a loss of control.
On the other hand, in the case of telecommuting, employees may feel left out of important organizational decisions or like they are not considered for important assignments.
15.彈性工作安排對你有吸引力嗎？為什麼？
Students may respond several ways to this question. Flexible work arrangements are not for everyone. An analogy is internet classes. While these classes offer the student greater flexibility and help with scheduling issues, some students find that they do not get as much from the class or that they lose focus and let the class assignments build up.
16.維持員工間的互動為什麼是現今組織設計的挑戰？
This question seems strange with all of the communication technology available today (i.e. cell-phones, e-mail, lectronic meeting software, etc…). However, with organizations adopting more flexible structures and flexible work arrangements, employees are dispersed throughout the organization and the world. In addition, with the introduction of team and project environments, it is possible that employees will be working on so multiple projects at once. Considering these factors, it is difficult to make sure everyone has the necessary information when and where they need it.
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NTUT101年度上學期 (5)
